All research updates from the peptide profiles at a glance – new studies, trial results and regulatory decisions.
Neelakantan et al. (2018) — In diet-induced obese mice the NNMT inhibitor reduced body weight and fat-cell size without lowering food intake. · Dimet-Wiley et al. (2024) — In aged mice NNMT inhibition improved grip strength and enhanced exercise effects on muscle function. · No registered or published human trials to date.
No major new human studies found since the August 2026 update.
FDA / PCAC (2026) — FDA removed BPC-157 from the Category 2 ("do not compound") list in April 2026. On 23/24 July 2026 the Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee voted 8–6 to recommend adding it to the 503A bulks list. The vote is advisory; no FDA approval and no final rule yet.
Bremelanotide is FDA-approved (Vyleesi, 2019) for premenopausal women with hypoactive sexual desire disorder, based on the two phase 3 RECONNECT trials. · NCT04943068 — Phase 3 bridging trial of subcutaneous bremelanotide in premenopausal women with HSDD (Japan).
No major new human studies found since the August 2026 update.
Teichman et al. (2006) — Human study: single injections of CJC-1295 raised GH 2–10-fold for ≥6 days and IGF-1 1.5–3-fold for 9–11 days. · Ionescu & Frohman (2006) — Pulsatile GH secretion was preserved under the long-acting GHRH analog. · No new clinical trials since; clinical development was discontinued.
No controlled studies exist on the combination itself; evidence comes from the individual components (see CJC-1295 and Ipamorelin).
FDA (2026) — FDA removed dihexa acetate from the Category 2 list in April 2026; PCAC review is scheduled before end of February 2027. Removal does not mean approval or legal compounding eligibility. · McCoy et al. (2013) — Key preclinical study: orally active angiotensin IV analog improved cognition in rat models. No human trials registered to date.
FDA / PCAC (2026) — FDA removed emideltide (DSIP) from the Category 2 list in April 2026, but on 24 July 2026 the advisory committee voted 6–7 against adding it to the 503A bulks list. · No new controlled human sleep studies; evidence still rests mainly on small, older trials.
FDA / PCAC (2026) — FDA removed Epitalon from the Category 2 ("do not compound") list in April 2026. On 23/24 July 2026 the Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee voted 7–4 to recommend adding it to the 503A bulks list. The vote is advisory; no FDA approval and no final rule yet.
No major new human studies found since the August 2026 update.
FDA (2026) — FDA removed injectable GHK-Cu from the Category 2 list in April 2026; PCAC review is scheduled before end of February 2027. Removal does not mean approval or legal compounding eligibility.
No studies exist on the GLOW blend itself. Regulatory update for components: BPC-157 and TB-500 received a positive PCAC vote (July 2026); injectable GHK-Cu is pending PCAC review.
No major new human studies found since the August 2026 update.
No major new human studies found since the August 2026 update.
No major new human studies found since the August 2026 update.
No major new human studies found since the August 2026 update.
No major new human studies found since the August 2026 update.
No studies exist on the KLOW blend itself. Regulatory update for components: BPC-157, TB-500 and KPV received a positive PCAC vote (July 2026); injectable GHK-Cu is pending PCAC review.
FDA / PCAC (2026) — FDA removed KPV from the Category 2 ("do not compound") list in April 2026. On 23/24 July 2026 the Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee voted 8–6 to recommend adding it to the 503A bulks list. The vote is advisory; no FDA approval and no final rule yet.
FDA (2026) — FDA removed cathelicidin LL-37 from the Category 2 list in April 2026; PCAC review is scheduled before end of February 2027. Removal does not mean approval or legal compounding eligibility.
Langendonk et al. (2015) — Phase 3 RCTs in erythropoietic protoporphyria: afamelanotide (Melanotan I) increased pain-free sun exposure; basis of the Scenesse approval (EU, US). · Clinuvel (July 2026) — Phase 3 vitiligo trial CUV105 (afamelanotide + NB-UVB): topline results expected December 2026.
FDA (2026) — FDA removed Melanotan II from the Category 2 list in April 2026; PCAC review is scheduled before end of February 2027. Removal does not mean approval or legal compounding eligibility.
FDA / PCAC (2026) — FDA removed MOTS-c from the Category 2 ("do not compound") list in April 2026. On 23/24 July 2026 the Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee voted 7–5 to recommend adding it to the 503A bulks list. The vote is advisory; no FDA approval and no final rule yet.
Reyna et al. (2026) — Retrospective pilot (n=14): IV NAD+ 500 mg caused more infusion symptoms (GI complaints, tachycardia, chest pressure) and took ~97 vs. ~37 min compared with IV nicotinamide riboside; no relevant lab changes. Small, uncontrolled, clinic-affiliated authors.
Bremelanotide is FDA-approved (Vyleesi, 2019) for premenopausal women with hypoactive sexual desire disorder, based on the two phase 3 RECONNECT trials.
TRIUMPH-1 (Lilly, May 2026) — Phase 3, n=2,339 adults with obesity without diabetes: mean weight loss 19.0% / 25.9% / 28.3% (4 / 9 / 12 mg) after 80 weeks, 30.3% at 104 weeks (12 mg). Nausea up to 42%; discontinuation due to AEs up to 11.3% at 12 mg. · TRIUMPH-2 & -3 (Lilly, July 2026) — Phase 3, 80 weeks: up to −20.8% in type 2 diabetes with obesity (n=1,152) and up to −22.6% in obesity with cardiovascular disease (n=1,949) vs. −3 to −4% placebo. FDA submission planned for Q1 2027; not approved yet.
No major new human studies found since the August 2026 update.
FDA / PCAC (2026) — FDA removed Semax from the Category 2 ("do not compound") list in April 2026. On 23/24 July 2026 the Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee voted 8–5 to recommend adding it to the 503A bulks list. The vote is advisory; no FDA approval and no final rule yet.
Walker (2006) — Review: sermorelin (GHRH 1-29) restores more physiological GH pulsatility than direct GH; formerly FDA-approved (Geref), withdrawn for commercial reasons. · No new controlled trials in the last two years.
No major new human studies found since the August 2026 update.
FDA (September 2025) — Elamipretide (SS-31) received accelerated approval as Forzinity for Barth syndrome (patients ≥30 kg) – the first approved mitochondria-targeted drug. Benefit must still be confirmed.
FDA / PCAC (2026) — FDA removed TB-500 (thymosin β4 fragment) from the Category 2 ("do not compound") list in April 2026. On 23/24 July 2026 the Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee voted 8–6 to recommend adding it to the 503A bulks list. The vote is advisory; no FDA approval and no final rule yet.
No major new human studies found since the August 2026 update.
TESTS trial, BMJ (2025) — Multicentre RCT, n=1,106 adults with sepsis: no reduction in 28-day mortality vs. placebo (23.4% vs. 24.1%).
Nicholls et al. (2025), SURPASS-CVOT — n≈13,200 with type 2 diabetes and atherosclerotic disease: tirzepatide was non-inferior to dulaglutide for MACE (HR 0.92; superiority not shown). · FDA (August 2026) — Mounjaro received an additional indication to reduce MACE risk in adults with type 2 diabetes at high cardiovascular risk. · Post-hoc analysis, JAMA Cardiology (2026) — Lower rate of a 6-component cardiorenal composite vs. dulaglutide (HR 0.84); exploratory.
Mendias & Awan (2025) — Review of approved and non-approved peptide therapies in sports medicine classifies AOD-9604 as insufficiently evidenced and not regulatory approved.
Lee & Burgess (2025) — First small pilot study on intravenous BPC-157 in 2 healthy adults reported no notable changes in cardiac, liver, kidney or thyroid markers within 24 hours (n=2, preliminary). · Demirtas et al. (2025) — In a rat ischemia-reperfusion model BPC-157 reduced liver, kidney and lung damage remote from the injury site. · Safety: large controlled human long-term safety data are still lacking.
Vosko et al. (2025) — Multinational comparative study (C-REGS2) on routine Cerebrolysin use in moderate ischemic stroke.
Al-dulaimi et al. (2025) — In human cell lines epitalon increased telomere length via telomerase upregulation / ALT activity. · Araj et al. (2025) — Comprehensive review summarising in vitro, in vivo and in silico data on epitalon.
No new peer-reviewed studies 2024-2026; a phase I trial (NCT06411366) is ongoing without published results. · Safety: Sivaprasad et al. (2020) — Case series describing central serous chorioretinopathy in bodybuilders after high-dose follistatin-344 remains the most relevant safety signal.
Mortazavi et al. (2025) — Review of topical GHK as an anti-wrinkle peptide, focusing on collagen synthesis and open efficacy questions. · Mao et al. (2025) — Animal study shows anti-inflammatory effects of GHK-Cu in experimental colitis via barrier protection.
Guan et al. (2023) — In a rodent model of ischemic acute kidney injury hexarelin reduced apoptosis via the MDM2/p53 pathway. No newer studies found for 2024-2026.
Zaeri et al. (2025) — Randomised phase III non-inferiority trial found comparable efficacy and safety of a biosimilar recombinant growth hormone versus reference somatropin in children with GH deficiency; no new safety signals.
Rodriguez-Esparragon et al. (2025) — Humanin and MOTS-c expression plus telomere length discussed as possible biomarkers in Alzheimer disease. · Bilgin et al. (2025) — Mouse study shows attenuation of metabolic, toxic and traumatic neuropathic pain by humanin via antioxidant effects. · Study (2025) — Humanin produced by human efferocytic macrophages promotes resolution of inflammation.
Lu et al. (2024) — Ferret study shows ipamorelin inhibits cisplatin-induced weight loss via GHSR1a agonism. · Mendias et al. (2026) — Narrative review classifies ipamorelin (alongside BPC-157, TB-500, GHK-Cu) as a non-approved peptide with limited human data.
Shah et al. (2025) — Cell study shows exogenous kisspeptin-10 suppresses metastasis and promotes apoptosis in triple-negative breast cancer. · Sridhar et al. (2025) — Mouse study shows improvement of obesity-associated diabetes with effects on enteroendocrine cells and pancreatic islets. · Li et al. (2024) — Kisspeptin-10 prevented bone loss in a mouse model via the Gpr54/Dusp18 pathway in osteoclasts. · Study (2024) — Rat model shows improved testicular redox status in hypothyroidism.
Zhang et al. (2024) — Carrier-free KPV-rapamycin nanoparticles reduced vascular calcification in a mouse model.
Svensson & Nilsson (2025) — Updated review on mechanisms by which LL-37 may limit the spread of local infections. · Neshani et al. (2025) — Review on structure and antimicrobial mechanisms of LL-37 against multidrug-resistant pathogens. · He et al. (2025) — Review of the role of LL-37 in periodontitis.
Safety: Case report (2025) — Oral mucosal changes documented after three months of self-injected melanotan II, underlining risks of unregulated use.
Study (2024) — MOTS-c interacts with Bcl-2 in animal models and attenuates progression of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. · Study (2024) — MOTS-c supports plasma membrane repair via TRIM72 translocation. · Study (2024) — MOTS-c attenuated skeletal muscle atrophy in immobilised mice by reducing lipid infiltration. · Study (2025) — Human study finds elevated circulating MOTS-c levels in obesity that remain unchanged after weight loss.
Randomised pilot (2024) — Placebo-controlled pilot compares acute intravenous NAD+ with nicotinamide riboside in healthy adults (preprint). · RCT (2025) — Randomised placebo-controlled trial examines NAD+ in heart failure due to ischemic cardiomyopathy.
NCT06565611 (2024-2025) — Phase 2 trial investigating co-administration of bremelanotide with tirzepatide for obesity (results not yet published).
Jastreboff et al. (2023) — Phase 2 trial of the triple hormone receptor agonist showed dose-dependent weight reduction in obesity. · Rosenstock et al. (2023) — Phase 2 trial in type 2 diabetes versus placebo and active control. · Publication (2025) — Design and rationale of the registrational TRIUMPH trials (obesity, obstructive sleep apnea, knee osteoarthritis). · Study (2025) — Retatrutide in obesity, obstructive sleep apnea and associated endpoints within the TRIUMPH programme.
Neurochemical Journal (2025) — Animal study in BALB/c mice on the combined effect of benzodiazepine tranquilizers and the peptide anxiolytic selank.
Acta Naturae (2025) — Animal study on semax and a derivative correcting pathological impairments in an Alzheimer mouse model. · Study (2025) — Identifies the mu-opioid receptor gene Oprm1 as a possible target gene of semax activity. · Bull Exp Biol Med (2025) — Effects of semax on intracellular calcium dynamics in rat brain neurons.
Study (2026) — Chemical optimisation of the exercise mimetic SLU-PP-332 yields new insights into ERR signalling. · Study (2025) — In vitro characterisation of the metabolism of SLU-PP-332 and SLU-PP-915, discussing doping potential and analytical detection.
Bhatt et al. (2024) — Post-hoc analysis of MMPOWER-3 found genotype-specific effects of elamipretide in patients with nuclear DNA mutations. · NuPower phase 3 (2025) — Ongoing phase 3 trial of elamipretide in primary mitochondrial disease (results pending). · Xu et al. (2025) — Review describes the September 2025 accelerated FDA approval of elamipretide for Barth syndrome.
Xu et al. (2024) — Analytical in vitro / rat study quantified TB-500 and its metabolites and examined wound-healing activity. · Han et al. (2025) — Study in mice and STEMI patients showed recombinant thymosin beta-4 improved ischemic cardiac function after reperfusion. · Zhou et al. (2025) — Review summarising the therapeutic potential of thymosin beta-4 in kidney disease. · No controlled human trials on TB-500 itself 2024-2026.
Fitch et al. (2024) — Efficacy and safety of tesamorelin in people with HIV on integrase inhibitor therapy. · Erlandson et al. (2025) — Effects of tesamorelin on neurocognitive impairment in HIV patients with abdominal obesity. · Srinivasa et al. (2025) — TRIUMPH study protocol: tesamorelin as an adjunct to exercise for physical function in HIV (ongoing, NCT06554717).
Zhang et al. (2025) — Multicentre phase II trial combining hypofractionated radiotherapy, PD-1 inhibitor, GM-CSF and thymosin alpha-1 in metastatic solid tumours. · Liu et al. (2025) — Preliminary analysis of thymosin alpha-1 added to chemoradiotherapy plus consolidation immunotherapy in unresectable NSCLC. · Wu et al. (2025) — Multicentre phase 3 trial (TESTS) found no significant reduction in sepsis mortality with thymosin alpha-1.
Malhotra et al. (2024) — SURMOUNT-OSA showed reduced apnea-hypopnea events in adults with obstructive sleep apnea and obesity. · Garvey et al. (2024) — SURMOUNT-4 examined maintenance of weight reduction with continued tirzepatide treatment. · Malhotra et al. (2025) — Secondary analysis of SURMOUNT-OSA describes effects on cardiometabolic risk factors. · Safety: Chiu et al. (2023) — Meta-analysis found no increased rate of pancreatitis or gallbladder disease versus controls; dose-response meta-analysis (2025) examined pancreatitis risk across doses; study (2025) examined cancer risk in treated individuals with and without diabetes.